Development and future trends of cryogenic technology

Since the Industrial Revolution, advancements in cryogenic technology have significantly accelerated due to the successful liquefaction of gases such as nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium, accompanied by the discovery of superconductivity. This article reviews the historical progression of cryogenic technology, tracing its evolution from the passive utilization of natural ice through the establishment of thermodynamic theories and breakthroughs in active refrigeration, particularly emphasizing the discovery of the Joule-Thomson effect and superconductivity. Fundamental cryogenic principles are described, including adiabatic expansion, throttling processes, and vapor-compression refrigeration cycles, with detailed discussions on three representative cryogenic devices: the Gifford-McMahon (G-M) cryocooler, the pulse tube cryocooler and dilution refrigerator. Furthermore, the paper elaborates on the extensive applications of cryogenic technology across scientific research, industrial production, aerospace, and energy transportation fields. Finally, it offers a prospective outlook on the development trends of cryogenic technology, highlighting directions towards miniaturization, environmental sustainability, and intelligent operation.